Economic Growth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Economic Growth - Essay Example Other countries like the US have been fortunate to have a series of good leaders to take the country to the apogee of technological advancement and economic growth where they are today. History provides many examples of such countries and their leaders that have played a fundamental role in their economic growth and have brought a radical change in the nations’ fortunes. The decade following the new millennium’s turn is marked by the BRICS countries’ emergence and economic empowerment. These countries include â€Å"Brazil, the Russian Federation, India, China and South Africa—which have come to account for a significant share of economic growth, demand expansion, industrial production and wealth creation in today’s world† (â€Å"Structural Change, Poverty† III). These regional economic powers’ success in the achievement of sustained growth of economy serves as a point of reference for other developing countries to emulate as wel l as for the advanced counrties to regain the dynamism of economy. The pace of a country’s economic growth can be better explained by the policy choices of its leaders than underlying structural conditions, and China provides a potential example of that. ... The three phases are discussed as follows: Rule taking phase China’s leaders have been very cautious in litigation of WTO since the country’s accession in 2006. Owing to its lack of familiarity with WTO’s legal rules in the capacity of a newcomer, China placed emphasis upon grabbing the rules rather than winning any disputes. Aimed at avoiding litigation, the Chinese leaders would settle the disputes with the complainants immediately after the cases were filed even if they were capable of using good arguments to defend their position. An example of this is the settlement of the dispute within four months when in March 2004, the US wanted to consult about a matter involving value-added tax’s rebate over integrated circuits (Gao). Likewise, the government of China announced to scrap the Duties of Anti-dumping within three days of the complaint raised by the US about China’s lack of consistence with the Anti-dumping Agreement in the case of Kraft Liner board in the year 2005 (Nakagawa 48). China’s eagerness to settle the disputes and flexibility of attitude reflect the country’s presence in the rule taking phase in the start of the 21st century. Rule shaking phase Chinese leaders resolved to develop a better understanding of the dispute settlement process by actively participating as a third party in real WTO cases. For instance, China was present as a third party in nearly every panel between 2003 and 2006 (Birkbeck 168). The improved confidence reflects from the answer of Bo Xilai, the Minister of MOFCOM when he was asked if there was any intention of complaining against the countries that were limiting the textile exports of China in the WTO, â€Å"First, China has the right to

Computer architecture Essay Example for Free

Computer architecture Essay Describe how analogue data can be converted and stored in computer systems Analogue data needs to be sampled in order to be processed by a computer. As computers deal in Ones and Zeros it can only record specific intervals. For example, when recording a sound that gradually gets louder over a minute, a digital recording could record the level of sound every second, but would lose the information between seconds. If the sound was sampled every half second, there would be half as much information lost from the original source, but file size would be doubled. This is the trade off that has to be made between file size and quality. Bit depth is the number of bits of information recorded per second . The higher the bit depth means, the higher the sample rate and this results in higher quality sound file. A good example of bit depth is in CD quality audio which has a bit depth of 16 bits and a sample rate of 44. 1 kHz. Task 3 (P5) Describe the key components of a computer architecture and how they interact 1. Data Buffer this is a region of memory used to temporarily hold data while it is being moved from one place to another. 2. Accumulator A An 8 bit CPU has 1 register called the accumulator, this holds temporary data e. g. the carry-out when you do addition. 3. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) this is the workhorse of the CPU because it carries out all the calculations. 4. Data Buses the mechanism that moves information around a computer. 5. Address Buffer this holds the address part of the instruction register, 6. Program Counter this contains the location of the next instruction to be executed and, therefore, keeps track of where the computer is up to in a program. 7. Instruction Register (IR) this divides the information it receives into two fields. One field in the IR contains the operation code that tells the CPU what operation is to be carried out. The other field, called the operand field, contains the address of the data to be used by the instruction. 8. Condition Code Register (CCR) this takes a snapshot of the state of the ALU after each instruction has been executed and records the state of the carry, negative, zero, and overflow flag-bits. In the above diagram the flag-bits are H, I, N, Z, V C. Task 4 (P6) Describe the features of a processor Multi-tasking. Multi-tasking is a method where multiple processes are dealt with at once sharing common processing recourses such as a CPU. It involves the CPU assigning which instructions to be carried out first but it only focuses on one instruction at a time. Pipelining Pipelining is a method in which the Processor begins to execute a second instruction before the first has finished. Every pipeline is divided into segments and each segment can be ran along side each other. When each segment completes its task it moves on to the next. Cache (Level 1 and Level 2) Cache is a portion of memory made of high-speed static RAM (SRAM). As a result Cache memory is much more efficient than the main memory (RAM) which is dynamic RAM (DRAM) that runs slower but also cheaper. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data from the most frequently used main memory locations. DRAM is dynamic in that, unlike SRAM, it needs to have its storage cells refreshed or given a new electronic charge every few milliseconds. SRAM does not need refreshing because it operates on the principle of moving current that is switched in one of two directions rather than a storage cell that holds a charge in place. If the computer processor can find the data it needs for its next operation in cache memory, it will save time compared to having to get it from random access memory. Level 1 cache is normally built on to the processor chip. It is extensively used for all sorts of purposes such as data fetching, data shifting and data loops, storing only small amounts of data. Level 2 cache is normally located on the motherboard. L2 cache stores much more data, coming usually from the L1 cache. L2 cache can be up to sixteen times the size of L1 cache; this also means that it takes up much more room so it has to be located on the motherboard. Clock Rate The clock rate is the speed at which a processor clock oscillates constantly from a one to a zero, this is measured in hertz. The clock rates speed is determined by an oscillator crystal and amplifier circuit inside a clock generator circuit. The limiting factor of the clock rate is the time it takes for the signal line to settle down from its on state to off state. The Clock rate is also as fast as L2 cache. Task 5 (P7) Describe the operation of logic gates using truth tables NOT Â  AND (2 inputs) OR (2 inputs) Consider how these three main gates can be combined. NOR (2 inputs) NOT Logic Gate also known as (Inverter) The output is true when only one input is false. Otherwise, the output is false. A Not gate is a logic gate which reverses the state of the input. AND Logic Gate The output is true when both inputs are true. Otherwise, the output is false. OR Logic Gate The output is true if either one or both of the inputs are true. If both inputs are false, then the output is false. These three main logic gates can be used to make other possible combinations of logic gates such as a NOR gate. NOR Logic Gate. The NOR gate is a combination of an OR gate followed by an inverter. The output is true if both inputs are false. Otherwise, the output is false. Task 6 (M1) Explain using examples how data travels around the processor Task 7 (M2) Create logic circuits using simple logic gates and provide truth tables This is a circuit that shows binary addition. Here are a few examples of the circuit being carried out. The Red circle/circles show input and Green circle/circles show output data This can be shown in the truth tables below. Task 8 (M4) Provide a description of both astable and bistable flip- flops. A flip-flop is an electrical circuit that can be in one of two states. Astable flip flop Astable flip flop is an oscillator which regularly switches states all the time. It has one 1 input and 1 Output. It can be used as a clock. Bistable flip flop Bistable flip flop is a memory device/gate which keeps one state indefinitely while it has power it also has 2 inputs and 2 outputs. The difference between An Astable and Bistable flip flops. A bistable flip-flop is a multivibrator with two stable states and can be put into either of its two states and it will stay like that. An example of this could be: A simple light switch; turn it on, it stays on, turn it off, it stays off. Task 9 (D1) Create complex logic circuits made up of arrays of simple logic circuits. To produce an addition of two numbers each of four bits in length we must first. You can add two numbers together each four bit in length by extending the first full adders carry out to another full adder and so on. Until you get 4 full adders each following on from the last carry out. The way a full adder works: The circuit adds two bits Input A and Input B, taking into account the previous carry in, to give the Sum, and the carry out. Now we know how a full adder works we can now relate this to the idea of 4 full adders joined together by the last carry out and the diagram below illustrates this. Diagram 1 These diagrams (below) will show you how you can add two four bit binary numbers together using a logic circuit. Example 1 Binary 1111+ 1111 ______ 11110 These binary numbers with value of 1 stand for both switches (The inputs i. e. the two four bit numbers added together) and the sum which in this case are shown by the flashing of LED lights (The sum is the output). 0 means no switch or light is active. The first line of inputs for this study will always be A4,A3,A2,A1 The second line of inputs for this study will always be B4,B3,B2,B1 these two numbers will be added together Then it is a long underscore followed by Carrys C3,C2,C1 directly underneath And then finally the output sum shown as O Task 10 (D2) Compare and contrast two different processors I will compare the AMD Opteron quad core and the Intel core 2 quad processor q9650. AMD Opteron quad core 64-bit Computing Yes L2 cache 512kb x4 L3 cache 2mb Clock Speed 2. 1Ghz Special Features Rapid Virtualization Indexing AMD Smart Fetch Technology Front Side Bus (FSB) Speed 2000Mhz Watts 45 Price i 165 new Intel core 2 quad processor q9650 64-bit Computing Yes L2 cache 12mb Clock Speed 3Ghz Special Features Intel Virtualization Technology Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology Front Side Bus (FSB) Speed 1533Mhz. Watts 65 Price i 223 new Key components: Front Side Bus The Front Side Bus allows the components to send and receive data from the CPU to the North Bridge and vise versa. The faster a computers bus speed, the faster it will operate, but a fast bus speed cant make up for a slow Clock Speed. Clock Speed The Clock Speed is the speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions these clock cycles per second are measured in hertz. Special Features: Virtualization -Virtualization also known as a virtual machine makes it possible to run multiple operating systems on one computer. SpeedStep Technology SpeedStep Technology is built into some new Intel processors this can be used to change the clock speed by using a piece of software. Speed Step Technology allows the processor to keep up with performed operations. It greatly reduces power consumption and heat loss. Smart Fetch Technology Smart Fetch Technology allows the processor core to enter a halt state and draw less power, which reduces CPU power consumption. Recommendation: Both processors have Quad-Core technology and 64 bit computing, however the difference is in the Clock speed, Cache memory and the extra features. Both processors have similar special features such as the AMD Rapid Virtualization Indexing and the Intel Virtualization Technology. Although the Intel core 2 quad processor q9650 has no L3 cache I think that the higher clock speed and L2 cache more than makes up for not having any L3 cache. Not to mention the Intel core 2 quad processor q9650 has Speed Step Technology which makes for a much greater performance. The Intel core 2 quad processor q9650 is more expensive but it is a price worth paying for such a greater performance.

Legal Barriers For Foreign Investors In Vietnam Economics Essay

Legal Barriers For Foreign Investors In Vietnam Economics Essay Vietnam in recent years has emerged as Southeast Asias fastest-growing economy and one of the regions hottest new destinations for foreign investors. Vietnam joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in January 2007. Its membership requires the country to merge into the global rules-based trading system and increase transparency in government decision making, speed up economic reform, and strengthen the rule of law. The Vietnamese economy offers many attractions for U.S. companies. About 70% of the population is under the age of 30, and the country has a literacy rate above 95%. Per capita income has more than doubled in the past 10 years, and domestic consumption is growing at more than 20% per year. Vietnams increasingly affluent urban consumers think highly of U.S. consumer goods. Vietnam has many natural resources and agricultural products, including oil and gas, marine products, rice, coffee, rubber, and tea. Some of the countrys top export industries produce garments and textiles, footwear, furniture, and seafood. Its major imports include machinery and equipment, petroleum products, fertilizer, steel, raw cotton, grain, cement, and motorcycles. Two decades have past since the country mounted an economic reform program known as doi moi. Vietnam is in the midst of transformation from an inward-looking command economy with little space for personal initiative to a more open society with a vibrant, free market economy that seeks to engage with the wider world. Hanoi in 2006 hosted the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) summit, which along with a visit by U.S. President George W. Bush, marked Vietnams emergence as a key player in the regional and global economy. The United States and Vietnam have forged strong relations in recent years despite a tragic history, stepping up cooperation in such areas as HIV/AIDS control, avian flu prevention, law enforcement, and a growing military-to-military partnership. The U.S. government is helping Vietnam restructure its education system and reform its legal system. The two governments are cooperating in accounting for servicemen missing since the war, launching a human rights dialogue, and establishing new forms of regional security cooperation. Although the GATT progressively acquired many of the attributes of an international organisation, it was increasingly felt in the 1980s that it was not keeping up with the rapid changes in the global economy, and required strengthened dispute-settlement and transparency mechanisms. While this was reflected in the agenda of the Uruguay round, the Ministerial Declaration establishing the rounds agenda did not call for the creation of a WTO. Instead, it was agreed that the round would be a single undertaking, with all its agreements applying to all GATT contracting parties. In principle, it was not necessary to create an international organisation to implement the results of the round, especially in so far as a common dispute-settlement mechanism was agreed to apply to all of the various agreements reached. The suggestion to establish a Multilateral Trade Organisation (MTO) by Canada in 1990 -supported by the EU was therefore something of a surprise. An important motivation to establis h an MTO was to have a single institutional framework encompassing the modified GATT, its sister bodies on services (GATS) and intellectual property (TRIPs), and all other agreements and arrangements concluded under the auspices of the Uruguay round. The United States initially opposed the idea, but, after further negotiations on the substance of the new organisation, agreed to the framework that currently exists, including the name change. Although the US Congress remained suspicious of any limitations to its sovereign powers in trade policy, during the ratification debate it became clear that the establishment of the WTO would not do much to change the status quo as far as the infringement of sovereignty was concerned. The GATT-1947 was a binding international treaty, and most of the institutional aspects of the WTO already existed under the GATT. None the less, the establishment of the WTO was a significant event. Attempts to put the GATT on a more secure organisational footing had been made periodically since the failure of the US Congress to ratify the ITO. During a 1955 meeting to review the GATT, a number of contracting parties proposed to establish an Organisation for Trade Co-operation (OTC). This proposal was much less elaborate than the ITO but it also failed to win the approval of the US Congress (Jackson, 1990). The issue of providing an institutional framework for international trade reappeared again in the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the UN in 1963. A group of experts called for the creation of a new UN agency with universal membership and substantial powers in the sphere of international trade. The idea was that this body would implement, interalia, recommendations of UNCTAD as well as other relevant policy decisions taken by organs of the UN. The proposal envisaged that the GATT would become the agen cys Committee on Tariffs. The proposal did not meet with much interest among the major trading nations. However, the 1964 UN General Assembly resolution establishing UNCTAD provided that it should be concerned with matters relating to the elaboration of a comprehensive trade organisation. Nothing concrete came of this despite lengthy discussions about the need for a New International Economic Order during the 1970s in large part because of the widely differing philosophies held by industrialised market economies and much of the developing world regarding the appropriate basis for international trade. With the creation of the WTO, an international trade organisation exists that is firmly based on GATT principles reciprocity and non-discrimination. The Scope, Functions, And Structure Of The WTO As the principal institution with responsibility for the multilateral trading system, the WTO has the same status as institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF. The WTO has legal personality and has been accorded privileges and immunities similar to those accorded to the specialised UN agencies. It is headed by a Ministerial Conference of all Members, meeting at least once every two years. More frequent participation by trade ministers than occurred in the GATT context is intended to strengthen the political guidance of the WTO and enhance the prominence and credibility of its rules in domestic political arenas. It can be noted, however, that past experience of the GATT with Ministerial meetings suggests that these can easily be an inefficient use of the time of many Ministers from smaller trading nations. This is because in negotiations the controversial issues tend to be solved at the last moment and require agreement between the major players. The latter may take a significan t amount of time to strike a deal between themselves, thereby marginalizing the potential for participation by Ministers of smaller countries. The WTO is charged with providing the common institutional framework for the conduct of trade relations among its Members in matters related to the agreements and associated legal instruments included in the Annexes . . . to the Agreement. There are four such Annexes, which contain the substantive rights and obligations of Members. Annex 1 has three parts: Annex 1A entitled Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods, contains the GATT-1994 (the GATT-1947 as amended by a large number of Understandings and supplementary Agreements negotiated in the Uruguay round); Annex 1B, which contains the GATS; and Annex 1C, the Agreement on TRIPs. Annex 2 consists of an Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes the WTOs common dispute-settlement mechanism. Annex 3 contains the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM), an instrument through which surveillance of Members trade policies occurs. Finally, Annex 4 entitled Plurilateral Trade Agreements consists of Tokyo round codes that were not multilateralised in the Uruguay round, and that therefore bind only signatories. Annexes 1-3 together are called the Multilateral Trade Agreements. The WTO has five functions. It is charged with facilitating the implementation and operation of the Multilateral Trade Agreements; providing a forum for negotiations on already covered or new issues; administering the Understanding on dispute settlement and the TPRM; and, finally, co-operating with the World Bank and the IMF to achieve greater coherence in global economic policy-making (Article III WTO). Between meetings of the Ministerial Conference responsible for carrying out the functions of the WTO the organisation is run by a General Council at the level of officials. The General Council turns itself, as needed, into a body to adjudicate trade disputes (the Dispute Settlement Body) or to review trade policies of the member countries (the Trade Policy Review Body). Three subsidiary councils operate under the general guidance of the WTOs General Council: the Council for Trade in Goods; the Council for Trade in Services; and the Council for Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights. Separate Committees exist to deal primarily with the interests of the least developed countries (Trade and Development); surveillance of trade restriction actions taken for balance-of payment purposes; trade-environment linkages; and the WTOs finances and administration (Secretariat). Additional committees or working parties deal with matters covered by the GATT, GATS, or TRIPs Agreement. There are committees functioning under the auspices of the Council on Trade in Goods dealing with subsidies, anti-dumping and countervailing measures, technical barriers to trade (product standards), import licensing, customs valuation, market access, agriculture, sanitary and phytosanitary measures, trade-related investment measures, rules of origin, and safeguards. Similarly, specific committees address matters relating to the GATS or TRIPs. Committees also exist to administer the Plurilateral Agreements. However, these are not under the guidance of the General Council but operat e within the general framework of the WTO and inform the Council of their activities. There were more than thirty councils and standing committees in the WTO in 1995 twice as many as under the old GATT. WTO In a struggle that began in the early 1980s, many countries worked in the Uruguay Round negotiations of 1986-94 to strengthen the multilateral trading system, as well as advance the liberalisation of international trade in goods, services and ideas. Governments are in the process of implementing the resulting agreements that now comprise the World Trade Organisation. They are interested in extending the WTO system to outside economies, but not in exposing it to fresh disputes and divisions, which is why negotiations on the accession of new members are detailed, rigorous and time consuming. This is critical in accommodating the economies in transition. One of the major political tasks before the World Trade Organisation (WTO), as it gears itself to address the needs of the international trading community for the remainder of this century and beyond, is to extend the benefits of the open multilateral trading system to economies that are still outside.  [1]  It means ensuring that the integration of outsiders into the world economy leads to concrete benefits for them as well as for their trading partners who are WTO member countries. It also means that the terms and conditions of entry should be such as to preserve and, hopefully, strengthen the credibility of the multilateral trading system, rather than weaken or expose it to disputes and divisions. Success in meeting these goals will depend, in practical terms, on the way the accession process is managed and controlled. If the right terms are arranged, an additional 1.5 billion new consumers and workers would benefit from the multilateral trading system, well before the year 2000. This is an opportunity that cannot be missed. One of the WTOs central objectives is to make the organisation truly global in scope and application. The WTO has 124 members as of October 1996. The member countries are now engaged in accession negotiations with 28 governments that have formally applied to join. Many others are considering applying. Bulgaria, Mongolia and Panama completed their accession negotiations earlier in the year and will become WTO members when they ratify their protocols. The most recent applications for accession have been from Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic and Georgia. Existing requests include major economies like the Peoples Republic of China, Chinese Taipei (known in the WTO as the Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu), the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Ukraine, Belarus and Vietnam. All these are important players on the international economic, trade and trade-related investment scene. There are also requests for accession from smaller but similarly significant countries. Many of them are economies in transition such as Albania, Armenia, Croatia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia and Moldova. There are others that are developing economies, among them Algeria, Jordan, Seychelles, Tonga and Vanuatu. Applications have also been received from such least developed economies as Cambodia, Nepal and Sudan. These countries and territories represent a wide range of economic and political interests. But they represent a critical common factor that motivates them. Big or small, developed or developing, they all look to WTO membership to underpin their domestic economic reforms, to help them compete fairly in the international marketplace and to counter discrimination and arbitrary behaviour with the help of enforceable multilateral rules. Benefits Of WTO Membership Why do governments want to join the WTO system? What are the benefits of WTO membership? First, membership means access for their economys exports of goods and services to the markets of the WTO community on unconditional most-favoured-nation (MFN) terms. The substantially reduced tariffs and non-tariff barriers achieved through eight rounds of multilateral trade negotiations over the last half century become available to entrepreneurs in the applicant country immediately on its accession. In the Uruguay Round negotiations, finally concluded at the end of 1994, developed countries further agreed to reduce tariffs on industrial goods by 40 percent. Their average tariff rate will stand, once the tariff agreements have been fully implemented, at around 3.8 percent; and 99 percent of their industrial-product tariffs will be bound at their new levelsmeaning that, having been reduced as a result of multilateral agreements, they cannot be raised again without further multilateral negotiations. Reforms agreed in agriculture include a 36 percent reduction in export subsidies and an 18 percent reduction in domestic support afforded to agricultural producers. In addition, the level of security for trade in agricultural products has been substantially strengthened, for 100 percent of agricultural product lines are now bound and no non-tariff barriers are permitted for agricultural products, with the exception of measures taken for balance-of-payments purposes.  [2]   Rough estimates by the WTOs economists suggest that the reduction of international trade barriers as a result of the Uruguay Round agreements could produce an increase in world income between US$109 and US$510 billion per year by the time the market access commitments are fully implemented in 2005 (GATT Secretariat,1994, p. 36.). These figures do not take into account the beneficial impact of other results concerning, for example, strengthened trade rules, procedures and institutions, or the market-access commitments and rules for trade in services. Secondly, WTO membership means the effective dismantling of discriminatory barriers that have been specifically directed at certain countries, for instance those erected against China, Russia and the East European countries. The most important benefit in this respect would be the availability to those countries of the same principle of nondiscrimination that WTO member countries normally apply to each other in the conduct of their trade relations, albeit with exceptions permitted under WTO rules. Thirdly, in the context of the general reduction of tariffs as barriers to trade, traders in the acceding country benefit from rules dealing with the trade-distorting effects of many types of hidden non-tariff measures like public subsidies, technical standards, customs-valuation and import-licensing procedures and restrictive policies on foreign direct investment or intellectual property rightsnow comprehensively regulated by transparent rules. The new General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) brings international disciplines to bear on activities in this vital area of trade as well. The importance of effective multilateral rules and disciplines in governing international trade relations increases in direct proportion to the intensification of international competition in the marketplace. For acceding governments, membership also puts at their disposal a strengthened and contractually binding international dispute-settlement mechanism. The importance of this mechanism is self-evident and its link with the need for security and fairness in trade relations is well recognised. Perhaps the most striking aspect of the dispute-settlement mechanism is the fact that the dispute-settlement bodys findings and their implementation cannot be blocked by any member; the mechanism is automatic. Finally, it is increasingly seen that the accession process helps reformist governments resist the pressures of sectional interests opposed to reforms that are being pursued in the long-term interests of economies as a whole. Governments can embark on the reform of expensively protected sectors, like industry and agriculture, and justify their actions as a price required by the WTO in return for the benefits of membership. Why Does Accession Take So Long? Each accession is a negotiation and is thus unique. For the same reasons, no deadlines or time limits are laid down in the accession process. Progress essentially depends on the openness of the applicant governments trade regime and the rapidity with which it can be brought into conformity with WTO obligations. Vietnam and WTO During the initial years of doi moi, Vietnam enjoyed remarkable levels of economic growth: the end of collectivised agriculture gave a substantial boost to the rural economy, while an influx of foreign investment coupled with liberalisation of private sector economic activity brought considerable benefits. By the second half of the 1990s, however, the economy was slowing, partly influenced by wider regional problems after the 1997 Asian crisis, but primarily because of domestic factors. Ari Kokko picks up the argument where Martin Gainsborough left off, asking how far that slowdown reflected a decline in Vietnams commitment to the reform process, and also the extent to which the downturn reflected structural problems rather than temporary setbacks. His answers focus on three key areas: trade policy, state-owned enterprise (SOE) reform, and the position of the private sector. (ADB 2000) On trade policy, Kokko paints a fairly positive picture. Vietnams 2001 Bilateral Trade Agreement with the United States was a major landmark in the direction of eventual World Trade Organisation (WTO) accession, and there is plenty of evidence that Vietnamese exports have been enjoying a sustainable recovery in recent years. This reflects the outward orientation of private sector Vietnamese firms and of multinational corporations with operations in Vietnam. Substantial overseas development aid disbursements and private cash remittances (often transferred by overseas Vietnamese to relatives and business partners in the country) have helped boost Vietnams balance of payments. State enterprise reform is another matter entirely. Like Gainsborough, Kokko insists that the lack of progress here is undeniable; most SOEs are loss-making and have continued to enjoy preferential access to credit, while the bulk of equitisations to date have not affected the largest and most troublesome state en terprises. Kokko notes that the private sector remains underdeveloped, faced with various forms of discrimination and limited access to credit. At the same time, he is more positive than Gainsborough in highlighting certain areas where private sector reform has proceeded quite rapidly. He praises the 1999 Enterprise Law, which has led to the registration of numerous new small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Kokko also singles out support from international donors for private sector capacity-building notably Japans Miyazawa plan, which has provided substantial funding to nurture SME development. Ultimately he suggests that SOEs reform might be tacitly bypassed: future strategies should focus on the development of the private sector while accepting more gradual reform of the SOE sector. He also expresses concern that Vietnam needs a better welfare and safety net infrastructure to protect its citizens from the uncertainties of the market, and to reduce both urban and rural povert y. After the problematic 1979 invasion and occupation of Cambodia, which blighted Vietnams relations with much of the world during the 1980s, the emphasis was now on settling all disputes by negotiation. Ideology was now marginalised, whereas previously it had formed the core of Vietnamese foreign policy: pragmatism prevailed. Vietnam was particularly anxious to find ways of countering Chinese economic and strategic dominance in the region, and this helps explain Vietnamese enthusiasm for building stronger ties with other Southeast Asian countries best seen in the decision to join the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Another crucial juncture was the normalisation of relations with the United States. Within ASEAN, Vietnam has acted as an informal leader for the new entrants of the 1990s (the others were Burma, Cambodia and Laos). Yet the ASEAN summits held in Hanoi in 2001 lacked clear focus; Vietnam seemed to prefer ASEAN to adopt a lower profile, and was uneasy with rec ent moves towards ideas of flexible engagement, constructive intervention or enhanced interaction, which would permit member states to comment critically on developments inside other states. Vietnam was attached to an older model of ASEAN, the so-called ASEAN way, based upon principles of consensus and non-interference a much more comfortable model for a one-party state. Yet Vietnam also sought to use ASEAN membership as a means of pressing its claim for admission to other multilateral bodies such as the WTO, laying itself open to charges of crude pragmatism. In its relations with the rest of the world, Vietnam (like many other states) often wanted things both ways: the benefits of foreign investment without the constraints of playing by international economic rules, or the benefits of ASEAN membership without the pressure to conform to regional norms of behaviour. In a way, this duality resembles other aspects of Vietnams post-doi moi order: Vietnam has persistently sought to take advantage of opportunities presented by globalisation and economic liberalisation, whilst avoiding the associated social and political costs. One consequence of the perceived success of reforms during the early 1990s was that the Vietnamese authorities revised their economic targets for the period from 1991 to 2000. Instead of aiming for a doubling of the countrys GDP over this period, as was originally intended before the Seventh Party Congress in 1991, the target was changed to a doubling of GDP per capita (Socialist Republic of Vietnam [SRV] 1994). Assessing the achievements of the reforms, many foreign observers concurred, concluding, for example, that Vietnam appears well-positioned to become a new East Asian dragon (Irvin 1995:725). However, these impressive achievements could not completely hide some of the structural and systemic weaknesses of the economy. By 1996, donors and foreign observers had highlighted several problems related to the import-substituting trade regime and the role of the state, in particular the continuing reliance on SOEs as the main vehicle of development (Kokko and Zejan 1996; Ljunggren 1996; Mallon 1996; United Nations Development Programme [UNDP] 1996). On trade policy, concerns focused on the distorted incentives provided by the complex, non-transparent and highly restrictive trade regime. The combination of tariffs, quotas, import licensing requirements, foreign exchange controls and various other trade barriers created strong incentives in favour of import substitution in consumer goods and selected heavy industries and a bias against export-oriented production. One paradoxical result was a rapid increase in imports: import-substituting industry in Vietnam, as elsewhere, was heavily dependent upon imported machinery, raw materials and intermediates. Consequently, although exports grew rapidly, import growth was even faster, resulting in growing trade and current account deficits. By 1995, the current account deficit exceeded US $2.6 billion, or 13 percent of GDP. Several problems were imminent. Would it be possible to finance large deficits without endangering future growth and macroeconomic stability? How would Vietnams commitm ents to liberalize trade from around the year 2000 mandated, for example, by Vietnams membership of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and ambition to join the World Trade Organisation (WTO) be realised? Would the promises to reduce tariffs be neutralised by the emergence of strong interest groups benefiting from, and therefore lobbying for, continued protectionism? The most important result in terms of formal policy may be the agreement about a Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) between Vietnam and the US, which was signed in July 2000 and ratified in late 2001. The BTA is an important step towards Vietnamese membership in the WTO, and perhaps also a key step in Vietnams continuing economic reforms. Unlike the AFTA agreement, which is based on consensus and does not prescribe severe sanctions against member countries that do not fulfil their commitments, both the BTA and eventual WTO membership are likely to come with stricter conditions, enforcement and sanctions. Moreover, the BTA allows Vietnam to reap some of the benefits (in terms of access to US markets) early on, while the perceived costs (resulting from opening the Vietnamese market to US firms) will come later. It is possible that these two features will strengthen the reform process: it will be difficult to default on reform promises once they have generated thousands of jobs that may be lost if promises are not fulfilled. The continuing increase in exports is another sign of progress in this area. In 1999 and 2000, exports grew at an annual rate of over 20 percent, which was more than four times the rate of domestic demand growth. This shows that an increasing share of the Vietnamese economy is integrated with the international economy, and that there is probably a gradual shift in the balance of power from groups favouring inward-oriented policies to groups relying on contacts with the international economy. In fact, the current Ten-Year Socio-Economic Development Strategy sets up the goal that the export growth rate should be twice as high as the planned 7.5 percent GDP growth rate during the period 2001-10: if the target is achieved, the ratio of exports to GDP will exceed 90 percent by 2010. Other important reforms have been made on the import side. Import tariffs have been reduced gradually, in line with Vietnams AFTA commitments, and the road map for future tariff reductions under the agreement was published in early 2002. The tariff reduction scheme constitutes an important step to facilitate the long-term planning of Vietnamese producers: with a clear time-bound plan in place, there is less scope for interest groups to lobby for extended protection. Most quantitative restrictions have also been removed, and all domestic enterprises are now allowed to import any goods that are not subject to quotas. Yet some problems remain. The tariff structure remains complex. There is great dispersion of tariff rates in the range from zero to 100 percent, with higher rates on import-substituting goods and lower ones on imported inputs. This provides high effective rates of protection for local market-oriented industry. Various administrative measures, such as temporary import bans, have also been used to restrict imports of consumer goods. Summarizing a review on trade policy, CIEM (2002:126) notes that this shows how many policy decisions tend to aim at dealing with the problem on a case by case basis rather than resolving it based on a consistent and overall approach. Foreign trade transactions can also be controlled and restricted by the allocation of foreign exchange. The State Bank of Vietnam controls and approves remittances of foreign currency abroad, and State Bank authorisation is required to borrow foreign currency, to convert dong to dollars, and to open offshore escrow accounts. Exporters are obliged to surrender a large share (at present 40 percent) of their foreign exchange earnings to the State Bank. For a long time, state enterprises and agencies had privileged access to foreign exchange (World Bank 1999b), and it is possible that these preferences still apply. Vietnam has to deal with almost 100 anti-dumping lawsuits and trade disputes each year, in which domestic businesses often come off worst. At the recent G20 Summit in Toronto, as ASEAN Chair, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung called for G20 nations to ensure a sustainable economic recovery and fight against trade protectionism in all forms. He emphasised that Vietnam has to face many disguised protection measures in some developed countries, saying that G20 nations should continue to introduce specific measures to remove barriers to trade and foreign direct investment. These barriers have become obstacles for Vietnamese investors and exporters. To some extent, these barriers, with stricter regulations on food hygiene and safety and anti-dumping, have had a positive impact on Vietnamese businesses who have to increase the quality of their products to compete against foreign rivals. Tran Manh Canh, Deputy General Director of the Hanoi Trade Corporation (Hapro), says that his company exports many products to the Republic of Korea, which requires a high standard of food hygiene and safety. However, Hapro leaders consider these a good opportunity for local businesses to sharpen their competitive edge to penetrate the global market, adds Mr. Canh. In addition to this, trade barriers have also posed numerous difficulties and challenges for Vietnamese businesses who do not have a proper understanding of this issue. Many local businesses find it hard to access information about the trade laws of countries that have commitments with Vietnam. Therefore, clarifying trade barriers and technical standards provided by partners and ensuring transparency in the origin of products are still big challenges for Vietnamese businesses when they export their products to foreign markets. For instance, the European Union (EU) has an anti-dumping tax of 10 percent on Vietnamese leather shoes. The European Bicycle Manufacturers Association (EBMA) has requested a review and extension of the anti-dumping duty on imported Vietnamese bicycles. This affects the Vietnamese bike ind

Are calculators as effective as they were intended to be? :: Technology Education Mathematics Essays

Are calculators as effective as they were intended to be? I can remember when I was in elementary school, we were never allowed to use calculators. I always seemed to excel in math, so I never really found it necessary to use one, usually. It was when I got into junior high when I first found myself looking for a calculator to help me do my math homework. I was taking pre-algebra, and I was struggling with learning the concepts. I just could not seem to get all the steps in the right order ever. My dad, who is a math genius in my opinion, showed me how to use a sophisticated calculator that would help me check my answers. He would not let me do my homework with it, but he allowed me to check it with his calculator. The teachers always made us show all of the steps, and if we used calculators the steps would be missing on the paper. So, I found it very helpful to use a calculator to check my answers. But I also thought that the calculators were somewhat confusing and complicated. I always felt like I was doing so much work to get to an answer than if I did it on my own on paper. I felt that it was easier to do the steps on the paper, than to remember all the buttons that I would have to push on the calculator. This is when I started wondering if calculators were as effective and efficient as they were intended. I think that the way I was taught in elementary school really effected the way I thought in junior high. I always assumed that it was "bad" to use a calculator for math problems, because that is the message that the teachers in elementary school sent to all the students. By them not allowing us to use us them and experiment with them, I feel that we were "turned off" by them really. This may have been caused by the lack of experience the teachers actually had. Also, they had been doing math for so long and they never used calculators. They did not see the need for the use of them.

Children and Play Essay

In my experience I have witnessed many children challenging themselves to take risks, for example when my target child was playing outside he challenged himself to climb higher on the climbing frame, which he achieved and then after I explained to him how this activity provides risks for him and other children, also I explained to him that there is nothing wrong with taking risks and that they help you learn how to do certain things. Another time when one of the children at my setting was challenging them self was when they were learning how to ride a bike, I saw the child getting frustrated and angry with them self because they kept stumbling and nearly falling off, I then stopped the child and told him how learning to ride a bike is a challenge and a risk for them and explained that it is fun but it comes with a few risks e. g. possibly falling off and injuring themselves. After I told him this he was more careful on the bike and after some encouragement he felt more comfortable when challenging himself and taking risks in the near future. Children benefit from play activities that challenge them in many ways, one way is that it provides them with a learning curve to try new things even if they can’t do them at first, for example climbing high ropes. Everyday life always involves some kind of risk and children need to learn how to cope with this. They need to understand that the world can be a dangerous place and that care needs to be taken when negotiating their way around it. Inevitably the most powerful learning comes from not understanding or misjudging the degree of risk. Similarly the toddler who ignores the warning, for example if the child says â€Å"don’t climb too high, you might fall†, and experiences this then they are not likely to make the same mistake again. Being told about possible dangers is not enough, children need to see or experience the consequences of not taking care. When I observe young children, I have seen that from an early age, they are motivated to take risks; they want to learn to walk, climb, ride a bike and are not put off by the tumbles they experience as they are developing coordination and control. In my setting children find their own physical challenges and, in doing so learn about their own strengths and limitations. Children who are sheltered from risk and challenge when young will not be able to make judgements about their own capabilities and will not be well equipped to resist peer pressure in their later years.

The Influence of Enlightenment on the French Revolution essays

The Influence of Enlightenment on the French Revolution essays What is enlightenment? The 18th century Enlightenment was a movement of the intellectuals who dared to prove all the aspects in life scientifically. German philosopher Immauel Kant proclaimed the motto of the enlightenment : Dare to know!: Have the courage to use your own intelligence! People were greatly impressed by the scientific revolution. They were also advocating the application of the scientific method to the understanding of all life. During the age of enlightenment, science became popular and there were a lot of philosophers who applied the natural law to the social life. For example: John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith, Montesquieu and many more. These people were the ones who then affected the French Revolution using their philosophies. Political, economical, and social problems in France during the 18th century led to the French Revolution. The political problem was the French monarchy itself. Monarchy is a system where the country is ruled by one single power(i.e. the king). While the economical problem was the falling of French economic. The social problem was that the society was divided into three estates : the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The French Revolution consisted of three phases. The first one was the Liberal Revolution, the second was the French Republic, and the third one was the Napoleonic era. During the first phase, which was influenced by John Locke, French people wanted to be liberated. According to John Locke everyone has inalienable human rights and government should protect these inalienable rights, not to take it away. But in fact, the French monarchy abused the humans natural rights. People did not have freedom and that is why they wanted to be liberated from the French monarc hy. John Locke personally criticized monarchy and social inequality. He said that all humans are the same and they should be equal to one another. In this phase, Locke&a...